Adrenaline, also known as Epinephrine, is one of the most critical life-saving medications in emergency medicine. It is a naturally occurring hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal glands (specifically the adrenal medulla) that plays a central role in the body's "fight-or-flight" response. As a medication, synthetic epinephrine acts rapidly on the heart, blood vessels, and airways, making it indispensable in emergencies such as anaphylaxis, cardiac arrest, and severe respiratory distress.
1. Drug Name and Classification
Generic Name: Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
Common Brand Names: Adrenalin, EpiPen, Auvi-Q, Symjepi (auto-injectors), and various formulations for injection
Drug Class: Sympathomimetic catecholamine, non-selective adrenergic agonist
Chemical Nature: Catecholamine derived from tyrosine; chemically known as (R)-4-[1-hydroxy-2-(methylamino)ethyl]benzene-1,2-diol
Epinephrine is available in multiple concentrations depending on the route and indication:
1:1000 (1 mg/mL): For intramuscular (IM) use in anaphylaxis
1:10,000 (0.1 mg/mL): For intravenous (IV) use in cardiac arrest
Auto-injectors: Pre-filled devices delivering 0.15 mg or 0.3 mg doses
2. Mechanism of Action
Epinephrine exerts its powerful effects by stimulating alpha and beta adrenergic receptors via G-protein-coupled second messenger systems.
Positive inotropic effect (increases force of contraction)
Improves cardiac output and coronary perfusion
Beta-2 Receptors (Smooth Muscle)
Bronchodilation by relaxing bronchial smooth muscles
Reduces release of inflammatory mediators from mast cells during allergic reactions
Mild vasodilation in skeletal muscle beds (at lower doses)
At low doses, beta effects predominate (increased heart rate, bronchodilation). At higher doses, alpha effects become more prominent (vasoconstriction). This dose-dependent action makes epinephrine highly versatile in critical care. [5]
Physiological Context: In the body, epinephrine is released during stress, increasing alertness, mobilizing energy stores (glycogenolysis and lipolysis), and redirecting blood flow to vital organs.
3. History and Discovery
Epinephrine was first isolated in the late 19th century. Japanese chemist Jokichi Takamine purified it in 1900, and it was synthesized shortly after. Its use in medicine began with applications in asthma and as a hemostatic agent. By the mid-20th century, it became a cornerstone of advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) protocols. The development of auto-injectors like the EpiPen in the 1970s revolutionized the treatment of anaphylaxis, allowing rapid self-administration by patients or bystanders.
4. Indications (Uses)
Epinephrine is primarily an emergency drug. Its indications include:
A. Anaphylaxis (Primary and Most Important Use)
The drug of choice for severe allergic reactions, including those triggered by:
Foods (peanuts, shellfish, etc.)
Medications (antibiotics, NSAIDs)
Insect stings
Latex or other allergens
It rapidly reverses hypotension, bronchospasm, and angioedema.
B. Cardiac Arrest
Asystole
Pulseless Electrical Activity (PEA)
Ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (as part of ACLS)
C. Severe Asthma or Bronchospasm
Life-threatening acute exacerbations unresponsive to inhaled beta-agonists
D. Hypotension and Shock
Septic shock (when fluid resuscitation and other vasopressors are insufficient)
Added to local anesthetics (e.g., lidocaine) to prolong duration and reduce systemic absorption via vasoconstriction
G. Other Uses
Induction and maintenance of mydriasis during intraocular surgery
Control of superficial bleeding in certain procedures
5. Dosage and Administration
Always confirm concentration before administration — errors between 1:1000 and 1:10,000 can be fatal.
A. Anaphylaxis
Adults:
0.3–0.5 mg IM (1:1000) into the anterolateral thigh
Repeat every 5–15 minutes as needed
Children:
0.01 mg/kg IM (max 0.5 mg)
Auto-injectors (EpiPen):
0.3 mg for adults and children >30 kg
0.15 mg for children 15–30 kg
B. Cardiac Arrest (ACLS)
Adults: 1 mg IV/IO (1:10,000) every 3–5 minutes during CPR
Endotracheal: 2–2.5 mg (diluted) if IV access unavailable
C. Severe Asthma
Adults: 0.3–0.5 mg IM/SC (1:1000), repeatable
D. Croup (Nebulized)
Children: 0.5 mL/kg of 1:1000 solution (max 5 mL) in normal saline
IV Infusion (for refractory shock): 0.1–1 mcg/kg/min, titrated to effect.
6. Pharmacokinetics
Onset: IM – 3–5 minutes; IV – immediate
Duration: 5–10 minutes (short half-life)
Metabolism: Rapidly metabolized by COMT and MAO enzymes in liver and tissues
Elimination: Mainly via urine as metabolites
Does not cross blood-brain barrier significantly
7. Contraindications
Absolute: None in true life-threatening emergencies (benefits outweigh risks).
Relative:
Uncontrolled hypertension
Ischemic heart disease / recent MI
Tachyarrhythmias
Hyperthyroidism
Narrow-angle glaucoma
Hypersensitivity to sulfites (some formulations)
8. Side Effects and Adverse Reactions
Common (usually transient)
Anxiety, restlessness, tremor
Palpitations, tachycardia
Headache, dizziness
Sweating, pallor
Nausea
Serious
Severe hypertension
Cardiac arrhythmias (ventricular ectopy, VT/VF)
Myocardial ischemia or infarction
Pulmonary edema
Cerebral hemorrhage (rare)
Hyperglycemia, lactic acidosis
Overdose can lead to stroke, myocardial infarction, or death due to extreme vasoconstriction and cardiac stimulation.
9. Drug Interactions
Potentiation:
MAO inhibitors (hypertensive crisis)
Tricyclic antidepressants
Cocaine or other stimulants
Antagonism:
Beta-blockers (may reduce effectiveness and cause paradoxical hypertension)
Increased Arrhythmia Risk:
Digoxin
Halogenated anesthetics
10. Nursing Responsibilities and Monitoring
Before Administration
Assess ABCs (Airway, Breathing, Circulation)
Obtain baseline vital signs, ECG if possible
Confirm diagnosis and rule out mimics
Check allergies and contraindications
During Administration
Continuous cardiac monitoring
Frequent blood pressure checks
Ensure proper IV site (risk of extravasation → tissue necrosis)
Have resuscitation equipment ready
After Administration
Monitor for clinical improvement (improved breathing, BP, alertness)
Watch for biphasic anaphylaxis (recurrence 4–12 hours later)
Continue observation for at least 4–6 hours after anaphylaxis
Document response and any adverse effects
11. Special Populations
Pregnancy: Category C. Used in life-threatening situations (anaphylaxis can be fatal to both mother and fetus).
Pediatrics: Weight-based dosing critical. Auto-injector doses vary by age/weight.
Elderly: Higher risk of cardiovascular complications.
Renal/Hepatic Impairment: Generally no dose adjustment due to short duration, but monitor closely.
12. Storage and Handling
Store at room temperature (15–30°C / 59–86°F)
Protect from light and extreme heat/cold
Do not use if solution is discolored (pink/brown) or contains precipitate
Auto-injectors have expiration dates — check regularly
13. Clinical Pearls and Case Considerations
In real-world scenarios, rapid recognition and administration of epinephrine in anaphylaxis dramatically improves outcomes. Delayed administration is a leading cause of poor results. For cardiac arrest, high-quality CPR combined with timely epinephrine remains the standard.
Healthcare providers should train regularly on ACLS protocols and anaphylaxis management. Public awareness campaigns have increased the availability of epinephrine auto-injectors in schools, restaurants, and public spaces.
Summarising…
Adrenaline (Epinephrine) remains a cornerstone of emergency medicine due to its multifaceted actions on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Its ability to rapidly reverse life-threatening conditions makes it irreplaceable, but its narrow therapeutic window demands precise knowledge of dosing, administration routes, and monitoring.
Understanding epinephrine thoroughly equips clinicians and informed individuals to respond effectively in critical situations. Always follow current evidence-based guidelines (e.g., from AHA, WAO, or local resuscitation councils) as protocols evolve.
References (for further reading):
StatPearls NCBI (Epinephrine)
American Heart Association ACLS Guidelines
DrugBank and manufacturer prescribing information
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*This article is for educational purposes only and does not replace professional medical advice. Consult current guidelines and a qualified healthcare provider for clinical decisions
fight-or-flight | Ecency
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