Psychodynamic approach
Psychodynamics in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). However, it has been criticized in the way that it over emphasizes the importance of sexuality and under emphasized of the role of social relationships.
The biological Approach
Biological perspective links biology and psychology by focusing on the analysis of human behavior based on biological and physical evidence. Charles Darwin(1859). These findings have helped psychiatry take off and help relieve the symptoms of the mental illness through drugs. However, Freud and other disciplines would argue that this just treats the symptoms and not the cause.
Cognitive Approach
To explore memory and sensory perception, to see if they are related to physiological proecces within the brain. It also creates an assumption that behaviour can be explained through the explanation of how the mind works. In 1960, Miller founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard. Carl Rogers believes that the use of laboratory experiments by cognitive psychology have low ecological validity and create an artificial environment due to the control over variables.
The Behavioural approach
The basic understandings of this perspective are; that all behaviour is learnt, that the interaction that we have with the environment makes a person who they are. John B. Watson (1912). Behaviorism has been criticized in the way it under-estimates the complexity of human behavior.
Humanistic approach
The humanistic perspective focuses on the aspects of the ‘positive image’, and what it means to humans. It emphasizes the study of the whole person. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May at Old Saybrook in 1964. The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own happiness and well-being as humans.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis has great explanatory power and understanding of behavior, but is has been accused of only explaining behavior after the event, not predicting what will happen in advance and of being unfalsifiable. Some have argued that psychoanalysis has approached the status more of a religion than a science, but it is not alone in being accused of unfalsifiable (evolutionary theory has too – why is anything the way it is?
Because it has evolved that way!) and like theories that are difficult to refute – the possibility exists that it is actually right.
Behavioural Perspsective
Behaviorism has parsimonious (i.e. economical / cost cutting) theories of learning, using a few simple principles (reinforcement, behavior shaping, generalization, etc.) to explain a vast variety of behavior from language acquisition to moral development.
It advanced bold, precise and refutable hypotheses (such as Thorndike’s law of effect) and possessed a hard core of central assumptions such as determinism from the environment (it was only when this assumption faced overwhelming criticism by the cognitive and ethological theorists that the behaviorist paradigm / model was overthrown).
Cognitive perspective
Cognitive psychology – adopts a scientific approach to unobservable mental processes by advancing precise models and conducting experiments upon behavior to confirm or refute them.
Full understanding, prediction and control in psychology is probably unobtainable due to the huge complexity of environmental, mental and biological influences upon even the simplest behavior (i.e. all extraneous variables cannot be controlled).
Nature
Nature can be loosely defined as genetic inheritance or the genetic makeup (the information encoded in your genes) which a person inherits from both parents at the time of conception and carries throughout life.
Nurture
Nurture can be defined as the different environmental factors to which a person is subjected from birth to death. Environmental factors involve many dimensions.
The Influences of Nature and Nurture on Human Development
Nature is responsible for the growth of a person from the fetus level until development into a normal adult. However, it is nurture which can be utilized to improve positive traits and diminish the effect of negative traits in a child. Guidance Counselors should be employed in all schools to guide the students on study habits, career prospects and requirement for various careers.
3b.
Ways to wage war against examination malpractice
Continuous assessment should be practiced correctly. It will reduce examination malpractices as 40% of marks are accumulated from various assessment techniques such as projects and assignments before actual examinations.
The number of invigilators and supervisors should be increased in the exam halls. Exam officers, Vice Principals and Principals should occasionally pay visits to exam halls to observe what is going on. In this way, they could notice any cheating behaviour.
The students should be thoroughly searched before entering the hall. Apart from photographs, finger prints on certificates should he used for identification
as no two persons, even identical twins could have the same finger print. That is
why it is used in crime detection.
help you understand yourself and other people by learning about aspects of human behaviour that will help you in daily life, including your interactions with others, your learning and memory performance, your ability to cope with pressure and your understanding of the causes of psychological disorders.
complement other learning by combining Psychology with other courses. Many courses in the Faculty of Arts and Social Science, as well as those in the Australian School of Business, benefit from an understanding of human behaviour, be it social interaction, language and communication, human motivation and emotion, or the process of decision-making. Knowledge about brain function and behaviour is of considerable benefit to students studying other science degrees.
develop sound analytical skills through the application of scientific method. Psychology is a science. The defining feature of any science is the objective approach that is used to advance our knowledge. In psychology we use this scientific approach to learn about behaviour and mental life. Psychology provides an excellent training in analytic thinking and scientific research methods that are applicable to a broad range of careers.
prepare you for a career as a professional Psychologist. Psychologists work in a wide variety of different contexts, including clinical, legal, organisational, educational and research settings in both the private and public sector. The initial training required to work as a psychologist is an accredited undergraduate degree in psychology. Specialist training in different professional areas is then provided in postgraduate degrees.
References
McLeod, S. A. (2013). Psychology perspectives. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html
Brendl, C. M., Chattopadhyay, A., Pelham, B. W., & Carvallo, M. (2005). Name letter branding: Valence transfers when product specific needs are active. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(3), 405–415.
Chen, P.-Y., Wang, S.-C., Poland, R. E., & Lin, K.-M. (2009). Biological variations in depression and anxiety between East and West. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 15(3), 283–294.
Cutler, B. L., & Wells, G. L. (2009). Expert testimony regarding eyewitness identification. In J. L. Skeem, S. O. Lilienfeld, & K. S. Douglas (Eds.), Psychological science in the courtroom: Consensus and controversy (pp. 100–123). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2007). Social cognition: From brains to culture. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192–240). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
