Time and Motion study

Q. Phases of Hawthorne studies?

1. Illumination Experiments:
   Illumination experiments were undertaken to find out how varying levels of illumination (amount of light at the workplace, a physical factor) affected the productivity. The hypothesis was that with higher illumination, productivity will increase. In the first series of experiments, a group of workers was chosen and placed in two separate groups. One group was exposed to varying intensities of illumination. This group was called test group.
   Another group, called as control group, continued to work under constant intensities of illumination. The researchers found that as they increased the illumination in the experimental group, both groups increased production. When the intensity of illumination decreased, the production continued to increase in both the groups.
2. Assembly Test Room Experiments:
   Relay assembly test room experiments were designed to determine the effect of changes in various job conditions on group productivity as the illumination experiments could not establish relationship between intensity of illumination and production.
3. Mass Interviewing Programme:
   The objective of this experiment is to find out the employees attitudes towards supervisor, company, wages, facilities, promotion, morale etc. and this can be done by mass interview programme. These interviews were conducted by the means of direct and then after indirect questions.
4. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment:
   The main objective of this study is to find out exact information about informal groups in plant and what are the factors or causes which influence output. These experiments were conducted to find out the impact of small groups on the individuals. In this experiment, a group of 14 male workers were formed into a small work group. The men were engaged in the assembly of terminal banks for the use in telephone exchanges.

Q. Time study and Motion study? Lillian and Gilberth

    TS: Time study is the study of searching scientific analysis of methods and equipment used or planned in doing a piece of work, developing best way, determination of time required.

    MS: Motion study is the study of movement whether of a machine or operator in performing an operation to eliminate useless motions and arranging of sequence of useful motions in the efficiency order.

Motion study is a procedure for scientific analysis of work methods, considering

                The raw materials
                Design of the product
                The process of work

Q. Advantages of time study?

1. Efficiency:
2. Effective incentive plan:
3. Setting production schedule: It helps in setting of production schedules for use in production, planning and control.
4. Formulating wage structure: It gives direction to management for formulating sound wage structure.
5. Create time consciousness: It creates time consciousness in worker by this they give their effort more as compared to earlier.
6. Reduces the cost: It reduces the cost also.
7. Computation of the cost: It enables computation of standard costs.
8. Provide best way: It gives an alternative methods and it helps in to find out the one best way to perform the task.
9. Improve working condition: It helps in to improve the working conditions.

Q. Time study procedure?

Q. Relation between time and motion study?
1. Complementary: Time study and Motion study are the complementary of each other.
2. Performance standards: Time and Motion studies can be effective for performance standards. Cause they set standards.
3. Planning and predict the level of output: Time and Motion studies can be used for planning purpose in order to predict the level of output that may be achieved
4. Uncover the problem and create solution: Time and Motion studies can be used to uncover problem and create solutions.
5. Time cost analysis: Time and Motion studies can be used for time cost analysis.
Adoption of one without other is useless.
Q. Implication of Hawthrone study?
1. social factor: It was now clear that factory is a social system
2. Group influence: Informal group in plant equally affect human behaviour as formal group.
3. Conflicts: There is a possibility of conflict between company and informal group. It may be because of incompatible objectives of the both.
4. Leadership: Sometime, informal leaders were more important and impressive than formal in directing group behaviour because he identifies group attitude, opinion, and objective more efficiently than formal leader.
5. Supervision:
6. Communication:
Q. Motivation?
Motivation is the persuasion process which starts with need identification and end with need fulfilment.

        People have reason
        What they choose they think good
        Attainable goal
        The conditions of work matter

Q. Types of motivation?

Q. Theories of Motivation?
Maslow need hierarchy:

1. Human needs are either of an attraction/desire nature or of an avoidance nature.

2. Because humans are "wanting" beings, when one desire is satisfied, another desire will take its place.
   The five levels of needs are the following:
   ● Physiological: These are basic physical comfort or bodily needs: food, sex, drink and sleep. In the workplace, these needs translate into a safe, ergonomically designed work environment with appropriate base salary compensation.
   ● Security/safety: People want to feel safe, secure, and free from fear. They need stability, structure, and order. In the workplace, job security and fringe benefits, along with an environment free of violence, fills these needs.
   ● Social/ Belongingness and love: This is a need for friends, family, and intimacy—for social acceptance and affection from one's peers. In the workplace, this need is satisfied by participation in work groups with good relationships among co-workers and between workers and managers.
   ● Self-Esteem: People want the esteem of others and they want to be regarded as useful, competent, and important. People also desire self-esteem and need a good self image. In the workplace, increased responsibility, high status, and recognition for contributions satisfy these needs.
   ● Self-actualization: This highest motivation level involves people striving to actualize their full potential, to become more of what they are capable of being. They seek to attain self-fulfilment. In the workplace, people satisfy this need by being creative, receiving training, or accepting challenging assignments.
   Hygiene motivation- Herzberg: / Two factor theory

3. Motivation is based on the positive satisfaction that psychological growth provides. The presence of factors such as responsibility, achievement, recognition, and possibility for growth or advancement will motivate and satisfy people. The absence of these factors will not necessarily de-motivate or cause dissatisfaction.

4. Hygiene is based on an individual's desire to avoid deprivation and the resulting physical and emotional discomfort. Hygiene factors include willingness to supervise; positive working conditions; interpersonal relations with peers, subordinates, and superiors; status; job security; and salary. These factors do not motivate, nor will their presence cause job satisfaction. Their absence, however, will cause dissatisfaction.
   Although salary is considered a hygiene factor, it plays an indirect part in motivation as a measure of growth and advancement or as a symbol of recognition of achievement.

Dissatisfaction Hygiene/ Maintenance factor Satisfaction factor
1. Basic requirements

1. Fair wage
2. Promotion
3. Other monetary benefits
4. Good working environment 1. Challenge
5. Status
6. Recognition
7. Authority
8. Respect.

Q. Group?
A group is defined as ‘two or more individuals, interacting and mutually dependent on each other, who have come together to achieve particular objectives’ or ‘group are consisting two or more person who are interacting with one another in such a way that each person influence and influenced by each others.’ In simple words, group means two or more individual who share common values, norms and interest.
Q. Features of group dynamics?
(i) Two or more individuals : To form a group there should be at least two or more individuals involved. There is no maximum limit of the group but if group are being so large than communication becomes little bit difficult. Some time rules and regulations of the organization play an important role in formal group formation and meaningful interaction among the members in the case of informal group.
(ii) Interaction: Interaction is one of the main features of group. All the group members must be interact either by face to face communication or by using some mechanical devices like writing, telephone, internet, etc. It is not compulsion that all the members of the group to interact each other simultaneously, but each member must interact at least occasionally with one or more members of the group.
(iii) Leadership: Developing Leadership. The purpose of any group is all the members of the group must be know each other and to complete some objective. For this reason they collectively choose a leader among themselves and granted authority by members to make decisions, take action and other activity which will be related to group. The criteria of selection of leader based upon their performance and some time particular situation also help in to designate leader.
(iv) Collective identity: All the members of the group have some collective identity and they all are aware about their membership. They must have the feeling that he or she is the part of the group.
(v) Group norms: Group Norms are rules or guidelines of accepted behaviour which are established by a group and used to monitor the behaviour of its members. Informal group establish their own group norm with taking consideration of each members concern. In very structured formalized group these norms become law or operation laws. And each member should behave according to those particular laws.
(vi) Group Cohesiveness: Group Cohesiveness is a degree to which group members are attached to each others and are motivated to reside in the group. It shows the extent of liking of each member towards others.
(vii) Satisfaction: The ultimate result of group membership is satisfaction of members. If members were satisfied they are more productive, reduce conflicts, coordinated, motivated, participative and many more.

Q. Phases of group development?
Stage I: Forming
It is the first stage in group development process. Uncertainty about the group's purpose, structure and leadership are the main characteristics of this stage. Members are pretending to get on or get along with others. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as a part of a group.
Stage II: Storming
Intra group conflicts are the essential part of this stage. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to the constraints that the group imposes on individuality. There is also conflict over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.
Stage III: Norming
At this stage close relationship, cohesiveness, and trust developed among the group members. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behaviour.
Stage IV: Performing
The group structure at this stage is fully functional and accepted to all members of the group. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understands each other to performing the task. Tuckman added a 5th stage 10 years later:
Stage V: Adjourning
Actually the group development process is completed on performing stage, when the particular groups are stat doing performing than automatically their development process completed. This stage is for temporary groups, having characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.

Q. Types of group?
1. Formal and Informal Groups—Formal groups are governed by prescribed rules and regulations of concern organization. They are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs or task of the organization. These groups are permanent like top management team, work units in different departments of the organization or temporary like they made for some specific task to perform and when such task are completed they disappear. Five members making up a counseling team are the example of formal group.
Informal groups created on the basis of voluntary and spontaneous requirements. They give their member a sense of social satisfaction. These groups are generally small in size, having indefinite structure, communications flow in all direction especially horizontal, authority is given by the group members, group member's behaviour are regulated by their own norms, values and beliefs. Three members of different department having lunch with each other are the example of informal group.

1. Task and Command Group—Task group consist of those members who are from either same or different department come and contact with each other for completing a particular task or job. They are basically temporary in nature when that task is accomplished they get back to their departments and position. A task group is usually formed to solve the problem or perform an activity that involves a number of organizational units. Like problem of absenteeism is increases day by day and for solving that problem management create a task group consisting of members (supervisor, manager, counsellor) who are going to check the problem and give suggestion also about how this problem will be overcome.
   Command group consist of those individuals who report directly to their superior or manager. It is determined by the organization chart.
2. Primary and Secondary Group—Primary Groups consist of those members who have intimate face-to-face association and co-operations. They are usually small in size and it is based on intimate relationship. Like family, friendship groups (those brought together because they share one/more common characteristics) or neighbourhood groups.
   The members of the secondary groups have not interest in the problem and pleasure of others. It is more formal, general and isolated. There is no continues interaction, intimacy, co-operation and association as primary group have.

Q. Leadership?
Leadership is interpersonal influence exercised in a situation and directed through communication process, towards the attainment of a specified goal or goals.

Q. Contingency theory of leadership?

Q. Training and development?
Training is a learning process that involves the attainment of knowledge, sharpening of skills, concepts, rules, or changing of attitudes and behaviours to enhance the performance of workers. These are the activities which basically aim at providing the skills, knowledge and aptitudes necessary for employment in a particular occupation.
Q. Methods of training?
1-5 on the job
6-11 off the job

1. Job Instruction Training (JIT)—In this method supervisors train operational workers. It consists of all the necessary steps with proper sequence which was required for a particular task. These steps not only explain what is to be done but also emphasis how it is to be done and why. It involves four steps (i) physically and psychologically prepare the trainees for instruction. (ii) presentation or demonstration of the particular task to the trainees, what are their responsibilities, decription about the job etc. is included in this phase. (iii) at this phase trainees are tried out what they get understand from the instructions. (iv) this is the last phase of JIT where supervisors encourage trainees to solve their queries if any regarding particular task.
2. Vestibule Training/Training Centre—In this method trainees are trained in the company classrooms. Where they get theoretical knowledge about the work which they are going to perform. This method is more useful when there is large number of trainees have to be trained for same kind of work at same time.
3. Demonstrations and Examples—It is just opposite to classroom or vestibule training methods. Here supervisor describes and display something related to the job and also explains the step-by-step explanations of why and what supervisor or trainer is doing. Supervisor demonstrates to trainees with the help of lectures, picture, text material, power point presentation, discussions.
4. Simulation—This method is used for more sophisticated task where errors if not minimized then it leads to heavy losses. It is generally duplicate setup of the workplace, where workers feel and touch the simulated equipments and make practice to use equipment without any problem.
5. Apprenticeship—Apprenticeship refers to the period of service as a
   learner of a trade or handicraft. The apprentice, usually a boy at the beginning of his working life, was bound by a legal agreement to serve an employer for a fixed number of years during which the employer promised to instruct him. Carpenters, a machinist, weavers, jewelers,
   electricians, a draughtsman, a tool-maker, a printer, a pattern designer, diesinkers etc. are the field in which apprenticeship training is offered.
6. Lectures—This method is used to create understanding of a topic or to influence behaviour, attitudes through lecture. A lecture can be in written or oral form. Lecture is telling someone about something. Lecture is given to enhance the knowledge of listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic. Training is basically incomplete without lecture. It is less expensive and can be reached large number of people at same time.
7. Group Discussions—This method is more useful than a lecture method. In this method the training is supported, elaborated, explains, or expanded on through interactions both among the trainees and between the trainer and the trainees. The interaction and the communication between these two make it much more effective and powerful than the lecture method. If this method is used with proper sequence i.e. lectures, followed by discussion and questioning, can achieve higher level knowledge objectives, such as problem solving and principle learning.
8. Case Studies—This method is usually consisting of description of some events that occurred in the organization. The basic objective of case study is to find solution of a particular problem. The trainees review the case and find out the various alternatives and finally suggest the solution. This helps the learners to increase their observation power and broaden their view.
9. Role Playing—The term role playing was originally coined in the 1920s by Jacob L. Moreno, a Viennese psychiatrist who surmised patients gained more from exploring their problems by acting them out than by talking about them.6 Oxford English Dictionary defines role playing as “the changing of one’s behaviour to fulfill a social role”. In this method, two or more trainees are assigned parts to play in front of others. These parts
   do not involve any rehearsals. They are simply informed the situation and the respective roles they have to play. The usual subjects involve in role playing are grievance handling, hiring, retrenchment, appraisal interview etc.
10. Programmed Instructions—Programmed instruction is a computer-based training that comprises of graphics, multimedia, text that is connected to one another and is stored in memory. A programmed instruction involves breaking information down into meaningful units and it provides the trainee with content, information, asks questions, and
    based on the answer goes to the next level of information i.e. if the trainee gives the correct answer than they forward to the new information. And if the trainee gives the wrong answer then they are revert to their old position and review relevant information in more elaborate manner. This method is very useful because it gives immediate feedback, frequently review the information and it allows the trainee to learn according to
    their capability.
11. Sensitivity Training—This is the method of group therapy in which the members of the group, under the guidance of a leader, seek a deeper understanding of themselves and others, as by the exchange of intimate feelings and experiences, physical contacts, etc. The main objective of sensitivity training is not to make trainees conform to a set of acceptable norms and ideas. It is designed for trainees to confront their own prejudices and biases and broadens their tolerance level. Sensitivity training involves varied methods like case studies, simulated excise, role playing etc.

Q. EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS?
There are various methods by which management check the effectiveness of their training programms. Some are the:
• Reaction of Trainees;
• Learning;
• Behavioural Changes; and
• Impact on Organization Effectiveness and many more.
Reaction of trainee is one of the best methods by which management
can evaluate the effectiveness of the training programme. Under this method
management tries to collect the response of the trainee. They take help of
questionnaire, survey or simple interview by which they are asked certain
specific question regarding the training programme and collect the responses.
The learning tendency of worker is more improved after taking training. If they can easily learn the new technologies, cope with surrounding all of this express the effectiveness of the training programme.
One of the ways suggested by Blum & Naylor is by comparing the change in performance of a group receiving training to the change in performance of a comparable group which did not receive the training. If two groups i.e. control group and experimental group are both evaluated before the training introduced.
After imposing tests on the experimental group what are the changes seen in the experimental group compare with control group. If any difference is found in the same situation in both comparable groups it leads the importance and effectiveness of training

The following criteria suggested by Lindahl (1949)9 for checking the results of training are:
• Better quality of production.
• Increase in the number of operators able to meet job standards.
• Reduction in time required to do a specific job.
• Decrease in breakable supplies or tools.
• Decrease in absenteeism.
• Reduction in separation rate.
• Reduction in operational costs.
• Better performance on personnel tools such as tests, rating scales and attitude surveys.