Carbonic Acid
Carboxylic Acid
Bicarbonate Ion

Bicarbonate Buffer System

Bicarbonate-Carbonic Acid Buffer System

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Triplex

Trimethylglycine
Tricarboxylate
Triglycerides
Triterpene
Threonine
Trihydroxy
Triethoxysilyl
Trimethylsilyl
Trimethylamine

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Organic Acids

Monocarboxylic
Dicarboxylic
Tricarboxylic

Aconitic
Butyric
Isocitric
Itaconic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyric_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaconic_acid

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Itaconate
Dicarboxypropylation
Dicarboxypropylcysteine

Citrate Synthase
Aconitase

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Vitamin C Is Mandatory for the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Production of Antiinflammatory Itaconate

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10868358/

Itaconic Acid: A Regulator of Immune Responses and Inflammatory Metabolism

https://www.mdpi.com/1467-3045/47/7/534

Itaconate: A key regulator of immune responses and potential therapeutic target for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1568997225001454

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Itaconate

Itaconate is a key regulator of immune responses, and its modification of proteins is a major mechanism for its immunomodulatory effects.

Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzymes, especially citrate synthase and aconitase, are highly prone to inactivation by prooxidants.

Aconitase catalyzes the formation of cis-aconitate, the precursor of the antiinflammatory and antimicrobial metabolite itaconate.

Citrate synthase, aconitase, and itaconate are all involved in central metabolism, specifically the Krebs cycle (TCA cycle).

Citrate synthase catalyzes the first step of the cycle, producing citrate from acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate.

Aconitase then converts citrate to cis-aconitate and subsequently isocitrate.

Itaconate is produced from cis-aconitate via the enzyme cis-aconitate decarboxylase (IRG1) and is known for its role as an anti-inflammatory molecule.

The TCA cycle starts with citrate, which is formed by citrate synthase and then converted to isocitrate by aconitase. A key difference is that IRG1 acts on cis-aconitate, an intermediate from the aconitase reaction, to produce itaconate.

Itaconate Dextran Sulphate refers to an emerging area in biomedical research and materials science, specifically involving the use of the anti-inflammatory metabolite itaconate or its derivatives with the polyanionic polymer dextran sulfate.

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Colitis

Dextran Sulphate Sodium
Dextran ≈ Wine Sugar

Sulphated polysaccharide with anticoagulant activity used in immunological research to induce colitis.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextran_sulphate_sodium

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Dextran Sulphate
Negatively Charged
Polyanionic Antiviral

Dextran sulfate (DS) is a strongly and inherently negatively charged polyanionic polysaccharide, regardless of whether the surrounding environment is neutral, acidic, or alkaline.

The negative charge comes from its sulfate groups, which have a pKa well below typical environmental pH ranges, meaning they remain ionized even in highly acidic conditions.

Both dextran sulfate and DNA are strongly negatively charged molecules, so they generally repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion.

Dextran sulfate is a negatively charged polysaccharide that acts as an antiviral agent against HIV by binding to and shielding the positively charged V3 loop of the viral gp120 protein.

Polyanionic molecules can act as a scaffold to protect proteins from unfolding or aggregation.

Dextran = Sugar
Sulphate = MSM
Itaconate = Vitamin C

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Restoring gut barrier function
Chlorogenic Acid
Quinic Acid

Colitis induced by Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS) is a widely used research model because its effects can be ameliorated and partially reversed by certain treatments, including chlorogenic acid (CGA) and trilobatin. These compounds work by reducing inflammation and promoting the restoration of gut barrier function.

DSS induces colitis by damaging the intestinal epithelial monolayer, allowing pro-inflammatory substances like bacteria to penetrate the underlying tissue, which triggers a robust inflammatory response.

Chlorogenic Acid (CGA):

Anti-inflammatory effects: CGA reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.

Restoring gut barrier:

It improves the integrity of the intestinal barrier by enhancing the expression of tight junction proteins like ZO-1 and occludin.

Modulating gut microbiota:

CGA can reverse DSS-induced changes in gut microbiota, increasing microbial diversity and the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Akkermansia.

Chlorogenic acid is a natural polyphenol found in many plants, especially coffee beans. A polyphenol and ester of caffeic acid and quinic acid.

Roasting coffee beans increases the amount of free quinic acid due to the breakdown of chlorogenic acids.

Butyrate

Butyrate is a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) produced by gut bacteria that nourishes colon cells.

Citrate production: During this process, butyrate is converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the TCA cycle to form citrate.

How butyrate (Butter) helps with colitis

Energy source: Butyrate is the main fuel source for colonocytes (colon cells), which helps them function and repair themselves.

How prebiotics lead to SCFAs

Source of fuel: Prebiotic fibers are complex carbohydrates that humans cannot digest. They pass to the colon intact.

Bacterial fermentation: In the colon, beneficial gut bacteria ferment these fibers, producing SCFAs as a metabolic byproduct.

The most common SCFAs are acetate, propionate, and butyrate.

Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates consisting of monosaccharide, act as prebiotics that feed beneficial gut bacteria and are found in foods like vegetables, fruits, Honey, Butter and milk. They are indigestible in the small intestine, ferment in the colon, and offer benefits such as improved gut health and immune function.

Glutamine is a primary fuel source for intestinal cells and is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the gut barrier. This helps prevent the "leaky gut" phenomenon associated with inflammatory bowel diseases.

Octyl itaconate alleviates dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis.

Coffee
Pomegranate
Olive Oil
Rosemary
Quercetin
Quinic Acid
Prebiotic (Fiber)
Probiotics
Glutamine
Honey