Scientists have acquired knowledge after following the scientific methods and tried to discover the basic rules and common truths of nature and society. Current world and its progress are controlled through science. So its importance is immense. In a broad sense, the systematic analysis of any knowledge is called science but it will be used in the special case.
The field of science is basically two: social science and natural science. All such sciences, including biology, physics, chemistry, are included in natural science. On the other hand, the science of human behavior and society is included in the social sciences. However, to be covered in science, the knowledge has to be proven through specific observation and testing. And the researchers should not be tested under the same conditions, why the results should be the same. That is, according to individual consciousness, the results of scientific examination can never be changed.
Many see mathematics as a third class. That is, in their opinion science is divided into three categories: natural science, social science, and mathematics. In this viewpoint, mathematics is formal science and natural and social science is experimental science. Mathematics with both natural and social sciences are both in common and in common.
Mathematics is consistent with one-to-one experimental science that both study systematic studies on a particular subject. And the difference is that probation by experimental science is proved, but in mathematics there is no evidence to prove that it depends on a previous formula. This formal science, which includes statistics and logic, often plays a special role in the development of experimental science. So, to improve the experimental science, the promotion of formal science is necessary. How does some work (natural science) or how people think (social science) so explain the formal science.
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Science is a special term used to acquire knowledge in a great sense, which existed in many historic civilizations before the modern era. Modern science is unique in the process and results in successful.
The word science used to mean a kind of knowledge in the sense of the origin, but did not understand the knowledge of science. In particular, it was a kind of knowledge that people used to communicate with each other. For example, records about the knowledge of natural issues were collected long before history and complex abstract ideas were developed. It used to build complex calendars, strategically to study poisonous plants for cooking and buildings like pyramids. However, there has been no consistent significant difference between the knowledge of such things, which is true between each community and other types of communal knowledge, such as myths and legal systems.
Before the concept of "nature" (ancient Greek fossies) by Socrates, the same word was used as a natural "way" as a plant grew, or a tribe called worshiping a particular god. For this reason it was claimed that these men were the first philosophers in a strict sense. Even the idea was that the first person made clear the difference between "nature" and "custom". Science was as famous as knowledge of nature and for every community which was the true thing, and the name of such special knowledge was philosophy - the subject of the first philosopher-physicist. They were primarily interested in theorists, especially astronomy. On the contrary, attempts to imitate nature by using the knowledge of nature, were considered by the classical scientists as more suitable interests for the lower class craftsmen. A clear difference between traditional eon and empirical science (DxA) was made by pre-Socrates philosopher Parminides (early in the 6th century or early 5th century). Although his work was a poem on Perry Fissues (on nature), it can be seen as an intuitive article by natural science. Paraminitis' refers to a traditional method or calculus that can accurately describe nature as compared to natural languages. May be similar to "Fiji".
Initially, a major turning point in the history of philosophical science is the controversial but successful attempts by Socrates to apply human philosophy to human nature with the nature of nature, the nature of the political community and human knowledge. He criticized the research of old type of physics, just as there was an analysis and lack of self-criticism. He was particularly aware that some of the original physicists used the nature in such a way that it did not have any intelligent discipline, which simply explains the field of motion and matter.
Human-centric studies were based on mythological and heritage-based, Socrates, and wanted to be enlightened, so he was killed. Aristotle created less controversial methods than Socrates. He rejected many solved issues of previous scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun revolves around the earth and as a part of many nature which was for humans. Every thing has a formal cause and finality, and with it there is a role in the cosmic order that is reasonable. The speed and the change are already described as possible implementations based on how their style is. While Socrates asserted firmly that philosophy should be used to consider the practical questions of humans (one study Aristotle divided it into morality and political philosophy), they do not argue on the basis of any other applicable science.
Aristotle maintained sharp differences between science and practical knowledge of artisans. He considered theoretical concept as the highest form of human activity. Practical thinking as a lesser lifestyle, he believed that the knowledge of the master and master craftsmen was good for a lower life.
Aristotelian system was used in search of natural phenomena in pre-ancient and early medieval periods. During the fall of the Roman Empire and during the periodical political struggle, some ancient knowledge was lost, or kept in a somewhat vague state. However, the general field of science (or "natural philosophy" that is called) and most common sense of the ancient world was preserved through works of early Latin encyclopedia like Sevilla's Ecidor. Many Greek science books were preserved in the Syrian translations done by the Neistorian and Monophyte groups in the Byzantine Empire. Most of these were later translated into Arabic under the Caliphate, among which many of the classical education was preserved and in some cases there was improvement.
Wisdom House was established in Baghdad in Iraq during the Abbasid era. It is considered to be a major knowledge center at the time of Islamic Golden Age, where Muslim scholars like al-Kindi and Ibn Sahal in Baghdad and Ibn al-Hayat in Cairo from 9th to thirteenth century.
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Between the seventeenth and the eighteenth century, the modernization project was developed by Bacon and Descart, which quickly advanced towards scientific progress and was led to the successful development of a new kind of natural science, mathematical, systematic experimental and deliberate innovation. Newton and Libyan succeeded in creating a new physics that is now known as Classical Mechanics, which can be confirmed by examination and explained using mathematics.
Libyan Aristotelian took the post from physics, but now it is being used in a new non-televised system, for example, "energy" and "feasibility" (modern version of Aristotelian "Energeia and potentia"). In Bacon's style, he thought that different types of things work according to the same common law of nature, which have no special formal or final reason for each type. In this period, the word "science" gradually started to be used as a context of natural knowledge, especially in the context of natural knowledge, which is coming closer to the old word "natural philosophy".
John Herschel and William Wheiel both came together in a methodology that brought the science into a system, but the term was used to refer to the scientist. When Charles Darwin published 'The Origin of Species', he established evolution as an explanation of the conventional biological complexities. His natural selection theory gave the natural explanation of how species were produced. However, it was widely acknowledged only after hundreds of years.
John Dalton developed the concept of atom. In the nineteenth century, the laws of thermal power and electromagnetic theory were also established, which led to new questions raised, which were not answered easily by using Newton's structure. In the last decade of the nineteenth century, the process of rebuilding the atom was discovered. X-rays illusion of radioactivity inspired the invention The following year the first atrophy particle was discovered electron.
Einstein's relativity and the development of quantum mechanics resulted in the replacement of classical mechanics
with a new physics, in which there are two distinct types of events described in them.
In the first half of the century, the development of artificial fertilizers has increased the worldwide population. At the same time, the structure of atom and nucleus was discovered, resulting in the release of "nuclear power" (atomic energy). In addition, the extensive use of scientific invention inspired by this century war facilitated the discovery of antibiotics, thereby increasing the expected life expectancy of the people. Besides, the transportation revolution (automobiles and aircraft), development of ICBMs, competition on space and competition with nuclear weapons, everything is the grace of modern science which everyone has taken seriously.
In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the wide range of integrated circuits connected to communication satellites brought a revolution in information technology, leading to the emergence of global Internet and mobile computing with smartphones.
The scientific method tries to explain natural phenomena in a reproductive system. An explanatory thought test is interpreted using principles like parasiman (also known as "oak razor") and is usually expected to find the feeling, other related information related to the event that seems to be acceptable to everyone. This new explanation is examined by examinations or observations that are used to make falsifiable predictions. Forecasting will be done before a sure test or observation and it should be seen as evidence that there is no reversal. Proof of prediction is evidence of progress. It is partially performed by observation of natural phenomena, but it is attempted to imitate natural phenomena in order to maintain discipline under controlled conditions (in observing sciences such as astronomy or geology where the observation of observation can be organized through a controlled test). Specially guru In the case of establishment of pure interpersonal relations (avoidance of mutual relations).
When an estimate turns out to be unsatisfactory, it is corrected or canceled. If the project survives in the examination, it can be transformed into a natural theory framework, which is considered to be a logical, rational and independent model or structure to describe the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory generally describes the behavior of a much larger set than a project. In general, a large number of assumptions may be bundled together by single doctrine. So a theory is a kind of hypothesis that can explain an even larger number of assumptions. In that formula, theories are assumed that most of them are formulated according to scientific principles. In addition to examining estimates, scientists can create a model through which it will attempt to describe phenomenon in logical, physical or mathematical representation, so that they can create new projects based on observable events. Scientists may have priority over others for a hypothesis test. So it is important to make sure that science can completely eliminate this bias. It can be carefully achieved by a complete peer review process and conclusions of experimental design, transparency, and experimental results. After the results were announced or published, the work of independent researchers was to double check how the study was tested and whether the results were dependent, it would be a common practice to follow similar tests. They will be fully accepted only when the scientific method is able to completely reduce the effect of biased bias.
Mathematics and organizational / formal science
Essential for Mathematical Science An important function of mathematics in the field of science is that it plays an important role in the publication of scientific models. In addition to collecting observations and measurements, there is often a need to use math widely in project preparation and forecasting. For example, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus are essential for all physics. In fact, mathematics is applied to each branch of science, such
Statistical methods, which allow scientists to evaluate the amount of experimental results reliably, using mathematical techniques. Statistical analysis plays a fundamental role both in the fields of natural science and social science.
Computational science uses computing power to imitate the situation in the real world, which can help to understand the issues related to scientific problems compared to structural mathematics. According to the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, the importance of mathematics is now as important as the theory and research of scientific innovation.
For the emergence of evolutionary theory and the use of mathematical disciplines among mathematicians and philosophers, much of the importance was given in the study of formal logic in the early 20th century. Notable mathematicians and philosophers who contributed in this regard include the Gottlob phrase, Zeuspe Piano, George Bull, Ernest Jermelo, Abraham Franklin, David Hilbert, Bartrund Russell, and Alfred Whitehead. Many different systems, such as Panoo Mathematics, were used to prove the basis of mathematics as well as the system of the Zeromeo-Fenken system and Principia Mathematica system. However, with the release of Carte Gaulle's imperfection theory in 1931, most of their efforts were reduced. Students of mathematics, philosophy and computer science still study the organizational logic of the university today. For example, Boolean algebra makes all modern computers work, and knowledge of this branch is very useful for programmers.
Scientific fields are usually divided into two main groups: Natural Science, which is a natural phenomenon (with biology) and social science, which studies human behavior and society. Both of these science studies.
Since the Renaissance period, educated societies existed for the promotion and research of scientific ideas and research. The oldest surviving organization is Italy's Acrademia de Lyncy, which was established in 1603. National academy related to science was established in a few countries. For example, the British Royal Society in 1660 and Academy of Sciences of France started its journey in 1666.
International scientific organizations such as the International Council for Science have been formed to increase the cooperation among different national scientists. Many governments have dedicated the organizations in support of scientific research. National Scientific Foundation in the US, National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, CSIRO in Australia, Central National De La Riches Scientific in France, Max Planck Society of France and Deutsche Forschengenschift in Germany and CSIC of Spain.
Literature
A huge range of scientific literature has been published. Scientific journals publish results of research conducted in universities and other research institutions in the form of documents, which serve as an archive record for science. The first scientific journal, Journals Desvvans started publication in 1665 following the philosophy. Since then, the total number of active journals has increased gradually. The number of public and scientific journals published in 1981 was 11,500. The United States National Medical Library now introduces 5,516 journals that contain articles on life sciences related topics. Even though the journals are in 39 languages, 112 percent of the index is published in English.
Most scientific journals include single scientific fields and publish research within that field; Research is usually expressed in the form of a scientific paper. In modern society, science has become so sensitive that it is generally considered to be very important for the achievement, news and communication to scientists.
Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science and Vee, and Scientific American meet many more reader's needs and in a few cases of research provide a non-technical summary of the popular region of research, with significant discoveries and advances. Science books are involved with many people's interest. Significantly, the science fiction genre, primarily pretends to be nice in nature, public imagination and ideas, even though it is not a scientific method.
Creative Writing Science Resources has improved greatly through the Royal Literary Fund's recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific branches, such as literature or more specifically.
Science philosophy
Working scientists generally grant a set of basic concepts that are needed to justify the scientific method: (1) the rational things that are shared by observers should have the real reality; (2) These objectives must be discovered by natural law; (3) These laws can be discovered through systematic observation and research. [15] Philosophy of science seeks to deepen the meaning of these underlying assumptions and whether it is valid.
Believing that the scientific theory and spiritual reality will be represented as reality. It can be the opposite of realism, the success of science does not depend on unobservable entities such as electrons. A form of anti -ismism is the idealism, the belief that the mind or consciousness is the most basic formula, and each mind produces its own reality. An idealistic viewpoint is the fact that what is true is not true for other minds.
There are different schools of thought in science philosophy. The most popular position is the application of theory, it is assumed that knowledge is created by a process of observation and scientific theories are considered as the result of generalization from this observation. Applause generally involves inductivism, a position that can explain that the number of general theories can be verified by humans by the number of measurements, and therefore there is a limited amount of available authoritative evidence available to confirm scientific theories. This is essential because the number of predictions of these theories is infinite, which means that it can not be known only by the limited amount of evidence using the perfect logic. There are many versions of application, in which basesinism and hypothetics are just one of the best methods.
Applause has been contrary to logic, the location is mainly related to Descartes, which contain the idea that knowledge is created by human intelligence, not by observation. In the twentieth century, the critical rationalism that took place in the antiquity of science was first defined by the Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. The manner in which the application of the subject of connection between the popar theory and the observation was discarded. He claimed that theories are not produced by observation, but those observations are made in the light of the theory and the only way that can be influenced by observation is when the conflict with it.
If scientific theory is presented in experimental and new evidence, it will always expose fraud. That is, no theory is ever considered to be strictly specific or guaranteed because science accepts the concept of phalibilism. The philosopher of science, Karl Popper, specifically defined the truth from the truth. He wrote that scientific knowledge is "made in search of truth", but it "does not look for certainty ... all the knowledge of the human being is delusional and therefore uncertain."
New scientific knowledge rarely brings about changes in our understanding. According to psychologist Keith Stanovich, the word "revolution" can be used by the media much, so that the public imagines that science continually proves false to be true. Although the theory of the famous relativity that seems to be necessary for complete revision, which can be called the absolute exception. In different branches of science, researchers have mastered post-graduate knowledge; It means jump in comparison to climbing a lot. They are based on whether the theories have been well tested and verified, as well as whether they have been recognized by the scientific community. For example, Sun-centric theory, evolution theory, relativity theory, and genetic theory still bear the name "theory", although it is traditionally considered to be practical. Philosophy Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for "knowledge" has been a contest, and a mistake is considered consistent with it. Furthermore, scientists follow the right scientific point of view even after the truth they will doubt it. Falibilist C.S. Pearce argues that the investigation is a struggle to resolve the correct doubts and only results from mere contradictory, verbal or supernatural doubts. But the investigator should try to gain real suspicion rather than general knowledge. He thinks that successful sciences do not believe in the feeling of any single discipline (they are not stronger than the weakest link) but they are connected together with multiple connected and different arguments cables.
Franz Science, pseudoscience, and junk science
It is also a field of study or estimate that despite the effort to claim the validity as science, they will not be able to achieve the status of science, sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science. Physicist Richard Feynman used the term "cargo cult science" in the case of those researchers believe that they are doing science because their activities have an outward appearance of science but in reality there is a lack of "clean truth", which can result in their evaluation in alphabetical order. Various types of commercial advertisements may fall from Hype to fraud.
Scientific debate may also have an element of political or ideological bias on all parties. Sometimes in the study it can be identified as a "bad science", which is well thought out in the study, but in reality this is actually a simplified explanation of erroneous, obsolete, incomplete, or scientific concepts. The term "scientific abuse" refers to situations when researchers deliberately presented their published information wrongly or deliberately credited him for a discovery to the wrong person.
There is historically a male-dominated field in the history of science, although there are some notable exceptions. In science, many disparities were acknowledged by women. However, women did most of the work in other areas of the society, such as the male-dominated society. Moreover, the achievement of their work was often denied. For example, Christine Lead (1847-1930) was able to access the PhD program "Cad"; Christine "Kit" Lead did all the requirements in 1882 but got a degree in 1926. After his career, he also studied logic, algebra (true tables), color vision, and psychology. His works were notable as well as famous researchers like Ludwig Wittgenstein and Charles Sanders Peirce. In science, the achievement of women is called workers in domestic spheres.
By the end of the 20th century, the number of female scientists has increased due to the active employment of women and the elimination of institutional discrimination against gender. However, most gender discrimination has been in some cases; More than half of new biologists are women, and where 80% of the PhDs are given to male physicists. Feminists claim that instead of gender discrimination, the difference in culture results is the key. Some experiments have shown that parents emphasize more on boys than girls whose effects reflect them deeply and logically. In the early 20th century, 50.3% of graduating degrees in the USA, 45.6% Master Degree and 40.7% PhD in science and engineering. Women earn more than half of the three cases, in psychology (about 70%), social science (about 50%) and in biology (about 50-60%). However, when it comes to physical science, geology, mathematics, engineering and computer science, women earn less than half their degree.
Science policy
Science is one of the areas related to public policy, which affects the behavior of scientific initiatives, as well as monitoring the goals of other national policies, including research funding such as the development of commercial products, arms development, healthcare and technological innovation to improve the environment. The science policy also mentions the law of scientific knowledge and the law of consensus for the development of public policies. In this way, the principles of science policy are related to such things that include natural science. According to the public policy, the main goal of science policy is to consider how best to serve the people in science and technology for the welfare of the people.
State policies have influenced public welfare and science for thousands of years, at least from the time of the Muhist who were inspired by the Hundred School of Thought, and inspired the study of defensive fortifications during the Warring States in China. The government approval of the Royal Society in the 17th century in Great Britain was recognized by a scientific community which is still present today. The professionalism of science began in the nineteenth century and was partially activated by the creation of scientific organizations. The National Science Academy, the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and the universities of their own countries were governed by state funding. Public policy can be influenced by funding for capital research and funding for intellectual infrastructure through research fund or by tax evasion. Van Burev Bush, the pioneer of the National Science Foundation and director of the Scientific Research and Development Office for the United States Government, wrote in July 1945 that "science is a matter of concern for the government.
Many issues affect science and the use of science and scientific arguments by the media and politicians. As a very broad generalization, many political assurances and truth find and scientists usually offer feasibility and caveats. However, the ability of politicians to listen to the media can often prevent people from understanding scientific matters. For example, the debate created in the UK's MMR issue can be included. In 1988, official minister Edwin Kurié was forced to resign as a resignation because he revealed that the battery was polluted with Salmonella.
John Hargan, Chris Moon, and researchers from the United States and Canada have described the Scientific Certificate Argumentation System (SNAM), where an organization or thought targets them only to suspect their supported advertising, as it opposes political agendas. Hengk Campbell and microbiology expert Alex Berezow used to describe the left-wing "feel-good fallacies" used in politics, where politicians create a position that makes humans reluctant to support some principles, even when scientific evidence shows that there is no need to worry or the current program There is no need to dramatically change.
Although some scientific research is applied in specific problems, many of our understanding comes from stimulus initiatives of fundamental research. It leads to technological progress which was not designed or sometimes even fantastic. This pointe was created by Michael Faraday when he was asked "What is the use of basic research?" He responded: "Sir, what is the use of a new born child?" For example, there is no real purpose in the study of the effect of red light on the human eye rod cells; Finally, it is discovered that our night vision is not affected by red light, but the search and rescue teams (among others) can take red light in the jet and helicopter cockpit. In a nutshell, the basic research is to search for knowledge and find applied research to solve practical problems using this knowledge. Finally, even basic studies may have an unexpected change and there are some ideas that are designed to determine the scientific fortune.
Although Encyclopedia (77 BCE) related to Pliny's natural history proves deep truth, but they proved to be unfaithful. A skeptical viewpoint demands a method of proof that the practical steps taken to deal with the unfaithful knowledge were taken. Such as Alhajen (suspected of Ptolemy), Roger Beacon, Witelow, John Pekham, Francis Bacon (1605) and C. S. Pandits like Pierce (1839-1914) gave these issues to the community of uncertainty. In particular, fraudulent arguments can be expressed, such as "strengthening the consequences."
"If a person is sure to start, he will fall into doubt, but if he wants to start with suspicion, he will definitely finish." - Francis Bacon, "The Advancement of Learning", book 1, V. 8, has been known for a problem investigation process thousands of years and has expanded beyond practice theory. For example,The use of measurement, a realistic method of settling existing disputes within the community.
John Ziman points out that interdependent pattern recognition is the fundamental topic for creating all scientific knowledge. Jinnah shows how scientists can measure each other's measurements for hundreds of centuries; He referred to this power as "emotional rationality". Then he created a consensus, proceeded to consensus and finally took refuge in reliable knowledge.
